Article Title：Doubts on diffusion: Challenging the assumed Indian origin of Iron Age agate and carnelian beads in Southeast Asia
Abstract：
Iron Age agate and carnelian beads found in Southeast Asia have long been assumed to be Indian imports, often featuring in diffusion-orientated theories of Southeast Asian state development that cite Indian influence as a major causal factor. The origin of these beads is tested here, through a pioneering non-destructive geochemical sourcing study of carnelian beads and potential source material. Our results suggest that many of these beads do not derive from India. Instead, a complex multi-source origin, involving some local Southeast Asian manufacture, appears likely. This finding further erodes the already crumbling foundation of diffusion-based theories of Southeast Asian state development. An alternative, regionally focused, approach to the study of these beads is recommended using geochemical analysis to help trace their trade within Southeast Asia. This will enable a better understanding of their role in, and impact upon, existing prestige goods exchange networks within the region.
Keywords: diffusion; Southeast Asia; state development; beads; sourcing; geochemistry
DOI: 10.1080/004382400409907
Source：WORLD ARCHAEOLOGY
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